DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF WATER CONSERVATION (WC) AND WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT (WDM) MEASURES

DEVELOPMENT OF A METHODOLOGY TO DETERMINE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF WATER CONSERVATION (WC) AND WATER DEMAND MANAGEMENT (WDM) MEASURES
Report No: 1273/1/02
August 2002

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

As in many developing countries, South Africa is in the process of transforming its water sector to serve the country as a whole. An important and underlying emphasis of new water legislation and policies highlights the need for better and more efficient use of water for improved health, environmental sustainability as well as economic growth. The need for this approach is essential as there are many cases of limited resources, particularly water and finance. Water conservation (WC) and water demand management (WDM) are essential and critical to achieve long term objectives of sustainability. The challenges in developing countries are to serve different profiles of consumers with different levels of service that meet criteria of affordability and sustainability. This makes it necessary to adopt different approaches.

The development of a methodology to determine the effectiveness of WC and WDM measures was undertaken taking into account the particular conditions pertinent to South Africa, existing related methodologies as well as local and international case studies.

In formulating the overall objective for the methodology, cognisance is taken that when measures are implemented they should facilitate the achievement of equitable access to, and sustainable use of, water resources by all stakeholders within the geographical area of application, while maintaining the characteristics and integrity of the overall water resources within agreed limit.

Specific related objectives include:

Reasonable water use through reduced unaccounted for water and encouragement of the efficient use of water.
Appropriate allocation of water through its optimal beneficial use, equitable access as well as economic efficiencies.
Implementation of integrated demand and supply approaches taking cognisance of the need to minimise the cost of supply and to increase community water supply coverage.
Achievement of a more sustainable use of water through the limitation of negative environmental impacts and achievement of an acceptable water quality.
Consensus based decisions that reflect local needs.

Therefore the emphasis is on the development of a practical methodology to determine the effectiveness of WC and WDM measures that are consistent with the principles of Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) as well as being applicable to developing countries.

The aims of the project were as follows:

Determine the effectiveness of WC and WDM measures from previous case studies such that the measures can be practically, feasibly and realistically applied to future planning scenarios.
Establish a foundation for the development of a WC/WDM algorithm that can be used to determine the effectiveness of individual as well as combined measures to reduce water usage and wastage.
Develop a practical and applicable methodology to determine the effectiveness of WC and WDM measures that are consistent with the principles of IRP.

In order to achieve the aims and objectives of the project in developing a consolidated methodology, the following aspects were considered:

South African country context.
A sample of existing related methodologies.
Selected examples of local and international case studies of WC/WDM

DEVELOPMENT OF METHODOLOGY

The approach used to develop the methodology to determine the effectiveness of WC and WDM measures is illustrated in Figure E1.

Figure E1 Simplified illustration of approach

South African Country Context

The South African country context study included the examination of the status of water resources in South Africa; the patterns and trends of water demand; a presentation of the socio-economic situation in the country that affects water demand; the legislative and policy framework, with the implications on policies for demand management; the political context surrounding water management; constraints affecting the implementation of WC/WDM and its evaluation; and finally insight into the infrastructural base available for the provision of water and sanitation services in the country, together with how its condition and management affect water demand.

A summary of some of the key issues that required consideration during the development of the methodology is as follows:

Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource. An holistic integrated approach to Water Resource Management is required that links economic and social development to the protection of natural ecosystems.
A broader understanding of the cyclical nature of weather patterns and their impacts is required in order to consistently and proactively implement WC/WDM measures rather than to adopt a reactive approach that receives prominence in droughts and attracts a laissez-faire attitude during wetter periods.
The linkage between the principle of increasing the supply of water through the implementation of WC/WDM measures and the unlimited needs of users, particularly in developing countries, still has to be successfully defined in practical terms.
The most obvious link between the high incidence of HIV/AIDS and water is the reduction in growth of water demand. However, many other factors require inclusion in growth scenarios including the growth of illegal immigration.
The combination of a strong culture of non-payment for a range of social and historical reasons as well as expectations for levels of service that exceed affordability of consumers.
A poverty relief policy of providing 6 m³ per household per month of "free basic water" which has been implemented and associated affordability levels that only allow for the provision of a basic level of service in the areas of supply of many water service authorities.
The strong evidence that the implementation of ongoing programmes for the repair and maintenance of water infrastructure will reduce water losses and improve the delivery of services still has to be assimilated by many water supply institutions.
The increasing shortage of experienced people trained in science, engineering and technology in South Africa especially at higher and middle levels, leads to reduced levels of productivity resulting in reduced quality service, which in turn contributes to increased levels of unaccounted-for water.
The fundamental question as to whether water in a developing country context should be considered an economic good or a hybrid of both a social and an economic resource.

Existing Related Methodologies

A limited sample of related methodologies that has developed within the past two decades were examined to provide a conceptual framework for this research. The strengths and weaknesses of these methodologies were identified in order to facilitate an understanding of the overall historic trends in the development of such methodologies as well as any deficiencil3s that could be overcome with a new methodology.

Examination of existing related methodologies identified the comprehensive 16 step process detailed in the US Army Corps of Engineers' handbook of methods for the evaluation of water conservation measures. This very rigid approach provided useful insight into aspects of a methodology generally applicable to a developed country.

Guidelines developed by the World Bank suggest a long-term programme, divided into four stages that would reduce and control unaccounted for water. Both physical (real) and non-physical (apparent) losses are addressed by this methodology which identifies that there is no instant solution to the problem of high levels of unaccounted for water in developing countries.

A more generic and holistic interactive planning approach aimed at effectiveness and acceptance (I PEA) developed in the Netherlands details a philosophy, a process and tools that facilitate the implementation of a strategy more in tune with definition of Integrated Water Resource Management (IVVRM) applicable to South African conditions and of relevance to other developing countries.

Scenario based multi-criteria policy planning and multiple criteria decision analysis techniques have demonstrated the relevance in applying multi-criteria decision support systems for water management in South Africa.

A brief summary of these methodologies is given in Table E1

Table E1 Synopsis of related methodologies

Methodology, name & brief description	Strengths	Weaknesses
US Army Corps of Engineers' 16 Step approach defining methods for the evaluation of water conservation for municipal and industrial water supply (Polhemus, 1985)	Comprehensive approach Refining and filtering of WC/WDM measures Situational analysis at the start Feasibility of measures established prior to implementation Social acceptability of measures are determined Expected effectiveness of measures are established Advantages and disadvantages are determined Economic and environmental impacts are identified Includes elements of IRP	Aimed at developed country Predominantly for urban areas Much of the data is relevant to the US only Although comprehensive, the approach appears to concentrate on conceptual aspects with less emphasis on implemented case studies
World Bank Guidelines for the reduction and control of unaccounted for water. A 12 to 14 year programme divided into 4 stages (Jeffcoate & Saravanapavan, 1987)	Clear differentiation of physical and non-physical water losses Detailed and concentration on conditions pertinent to developing countries Interactive approach ranging from an initial action programme to a long- term extended action programme Sound basic principles for the control of unaccounted for water were established	Concentrates mostly on distribution systems Potential for a lack of continuity in the management of such a long-term programme Mostly concentrating on technical measures/solutions
IPEA- Interactive Planning aimed at Effectiveness and Acceptance - A systematic and integrated approach consisting of 5 phases (Van Rooy, 1997)	Leads to mutual and interactive decision-making Analytical approach Openness to cultural and philosophical aspects A learning process for those involved Differences between current desired situation plus benchmarks/ratings help identify focus points Consensus approach used in prioritising that facilitates the filtering of any bias Helps prioritise measures	Complex analytical process Lacks clarity in the final steps related to implementation
MCDA -Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis -Consensus based decision making (Stewart et al 1997)	Achieves equitable balance-between conflicting needs and different interests Interactive approach by continually refining a set of scenarios	Process is generally complex and not easy to follow in its entirely

Most methodologies that are currently being used to determine the effectiveness of WC/WDM measures emanate or are based on pure economic principles that treat water as an economic good. From the study it has become clearly evident that in a developing country scenario" water should rather be considered as an economic resource as it is central to social and economic upliftment. This then requires a fundamentally new approach and methodology for determining effectiveness of NC/WDM measures.

WC/WDM Case Studies

A review of case study material from projects within Southern Africa and other developing countries providl3s important insight into how WC/WDM can address the particular conditions experienced in (developing countries, and how these conditions impact on the effectiveness of WC/WDM. This comparative process has assisted with the development of the methodology to determine the effectiveness of WC/WDM. Aspects of related WC/WDM cases were highlighted for their particular success or failure, and the lessons they might have for a methodology.

A range of case studies has been investigated that includes:

examples from rural and urban areas,
projects implementing isolated WC/WDM measures and those introducing an integrated WC/WDM policy,
examples at both a local level and at a broader scale,
projects across different sectors.

This wide range of cases shows the extent to which WC/WDM has been implemented and many novel ways in which WC/WDM has been applied. Several case studies were examined during this research.

Consolidated methodology

A pragmatic and easy to understand consolidated methodology has evolved from the analysis in the study and developed as follows:

Objectives of this research	SA country context	Existing related methodologies	WC/WDM Case Studies
Define the determination of effectiveness of WC/WDM measures Establish a foundation for the development of a WC/WDM effectiveness algorithm Develop a practical and applicable methodology	IWRM Awareness Economic factors Growth factors Cost recovery Institutional capacity Maintenance of infrastructure Socio-economic conditions Politics and water policy	US Army Corps Methodology - comprehensive but inflexible. · Provides indication of effectiveness of WC/WDM measures World Bank Guidelines - indicates the need for an interactive, long-term process IPEA -flexible, adaptable and participative approach MCDA -interactive approach that facilitates decision making but not user friendly	Integrated WC/WDM plans Communication and awareness raising Monitoring and evaluation· Appropriate and targeted approach Multi-stakeholder involvement at all levels Political support and institutional capacity Long-term approach

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DEVELOPMENT OF CONSOLIDATED METHODOLOGY

STEP 1 - SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS

STEP 2 - REFINING OBJECTIVES

STEP 3 - EFFECTIVENESS

STEP 4 - PLAN

In formulating the consolidated methodologies. the salient features of the 4 steps are as follows:

Situational Analysis includes the assessment of data availability, stakeholder analysis as well as a water audit and demand analysis. Refining objectives includes focusing on key issues of affordability, equity, sustainability and refining the objectives themselves. Effectiveness of WG/WDM measures includes the identification of appropriate measures as well as their detailed analysis. The preparation, implementation and re-evaluation of the WG/WDM plan are dealt with in the last step of the methodology. This whole process of developing the WG/WDM plan is (cyclical, consultative and iterative.

The methodology therefore takes cognisance of the analysis of the particular conditions in South Africa, existing methodologies and the findings of selected case studies as well as the objectives of the methodology. These aspects are related to the methodology via a value tree. (See Fig 5.3 in the text).

The application of the methodology is illustrated with the aid of a funnel (See Fig 5.12 in the text). The four steps of the methodology are addressed in sequence as one progresses through the funnel in a process that facilitates a consensus based decision to eventually focus on those WG/WDM measures most effective for a particular situation. The objectives and circumstances of a specific situation would determine the number of iterations that the methodology would require, starting from the basic analysis involved with an initial assessment progressing through the funnel, to more advanced analysis required during subsequent iterations. By these means the effectiveness of the process is refined.

The first step of this consensus based methodology is the commencement of the process whereby a broad list of WC/WDM measures is considered in context of the particular situation, the circumstances peculiar to the stakeholders involved and specific water demand conditions.

The second step of the methodology initiates a filtering process that starts to focus on those generic categories of WC/WDM measures that correspond with the consensus based issues and objectives for the situation.

The third step of the methodology is the refining process, whereby specific WC/WDM measures are identified and selected because of their potential effectiveness to address the specific circumstances under consideration. These specific circumstances relate to their applicability, technical feasibility, social acceptability, economic effects and potential environmental impacts.

The fourth and final step of the methodology builds on the previous processes and is in itself a refining process; as well as a process to obtain broader acceptance of the consensus based conclusions that have been reached. This step not only formulates the plan but facilitates the implementation of the chosen plan. It also initiates a re-evaluation process that is the basis of a sensitivity analysis as well as a means of measuring results against benchmarks.

This funnelling process is illustrated with the aid of Figure 5.12 in the text whereby after each iteration, the number of consensus based choices available are reduced until, ultimately, the most effective WG/WIDM measures are selected and adopted. The number of iterations undertaken through this funnelling process would be related to the particular project's objectives and circumstances.

A comprehensive summary of the methodology indicating each step, sub-step, objective/goal, process and associated tool/method is given in Table 5.5 in the text.

Recommendations

The methodology be applied and tested as part of the follow-up to this project.
Further research be encouraged to address several aspects identified through this project.
The findings of this research project are communicated to as many interested parties as possible.